The Parthenon became a church, the Agora turned into a Byzantine neighborhood, and Hadrian’s Library evolved into a Christian religious center. By the time the Ottoman Empire took control of the city in 1456 CE, Byzantine Athens had already shaped the medieval character of the city, providing the foundation for what came next.

From Classical Athens to Byzantine Athens

As Christianity became the official religion of the Byzantine Empire, Athens’ ancient monuments were repurposed to align with the new faith. The city, once filled with temples honoring the Olympian gods, gradually transformed into a landscape of Christian churches and monasteries.

From Pagan Temples to Christian Churches

One of the most significant changes in Byzantine Athens was the conversion of its most famous temples into Christian places of worship. The most striking example is the Parthenon, which was transformed into the Church of the Virgin Mary sometime in the 6th century CE.

This conversion preserved the temple’s structure while adapting it for Christian liturgical practices, ensuring its continuous use for over a thousand years. Similarly, the Erechtheion, once dedicated to Athena and Poseidon, was converted into a Christian chapel, and the Temple of Hephaestus became Saint George Akamates, serving as a church well into the Ottoman period.

Hadrian’s Library: From Roman Learning to Christian Worship

Built in 132 CE, Hadrian’s Library was originally a center of learning, scholarship, and debate. However, in the 5th century CE, it was converted into a Christian church, making it one of Athens’ earliest Byzantine religious sites. Later, it housed the Tetraconch Church, believed by some scholars to have been Athens’ first cathedral.

This transformation from a Roman intellectual hub into a Byzantine religious site symbolized Athens’ shift from a city of philosophers to a city of faith. Over the centuries, the library’s remains were incorporated into new religious and civic structures, adapting the ancient site to the needs of a Christian city.

The Decline of Athens as a Center of Learning

By the time Emperor Justinian I ruled in the 6th century CE, Athens had lost its status as an intellectual capital. In 529 CE, Justinian closed the city’s philosophical schools, marking the final decline of pagan learning in Byzantine Athens. Many scholars, fearing persecution, fled to Persia and other regions, further weakening Athens’ role as a center of knowledge.

With pagan philosophy suppressed and Christianity fully established, the city entered a new era—one defined not by debate and democracy, but by faith and religious devotion.

The Byzantine Settlement Inside the Agora

As the Byzantine Empire reshaped Athens, its urban layout changed dramatically. The Ancient Agora, once the center of political and civic life, became a residential and religious district, reflecting the practical needs of a medieval population.

A New Neighborhood Among the Ruins

The grand stoas, public squares, and administrative buildings of the Agora were gradually filled with homes, workshops, and small churches. By the 9th century CE, what was once the hub of Athenian democracy had become a Byzantine neighborhood, where life revolved around trade, local governance, and religious observance.

Among the most important Byzantine structures built in the Agora was the Church of the Holy Apostles, constructed in the 10th century CE. This church, still standing today, exemplifies the cross-in-square architectural style typical of Middle Byzantine religious buildings.

The Stoa of Attalos, which had once been a grand Hellenistic marketplace, was repurposed for commercial and residential use, its colonnades providing shelter for shops and storage areas. Instead of philosophers and statesmen, the Agora was now home to merchants, farmers, and artisans, marking its transition into a functional medieval settlement.

Byzantine Athens Under Imperial Rule

Though Athens never regained its political dominance, it remained a city of religious and administrative importance within the Byzantine Empire.

Athens as a Religious Center

Byzantine Athens became known for its churches, monasteries, and religious institutions, attracting pilgrims and travelers who came to see the Christianized ancient monuments. The Parthenon, now a church, drew visitors from across the empire, reinforcing Athens’ role as a spiritual center.

Monastic communities flourished in and around the city, with Byzantine monks preserving ancient texts and continuing small-scale scholarly activities, even as the city’s role in empire-wide politics diminished.

Athens as a Provincial Capital

Under Byzantine rule, Athens was administered as part of the Theme of Hellas, a territorial division established to manage military and economic affairs. Although no longer an imperial capital, it remained economically stable, sustained by agriculture, trade, and religious tourism.

While other Byzantine cities, such as Thessaloniki and Constantinople, became political and economic centers, Athens remained a symbol of continuity, its ancient past still visible in the churches and repurposed ruins scattered throughout the city.

Ottoman Athens: Building Upon Byzantine Foundations

Athens remained under Byzantine control until 1456 CE, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, ushering in a new period of transformation.

Christian Churches Turned into Mosques

Many of the Byzantine churches that had once been built over ancient temples were now converted into mosques. The Parthenon, which had served as a Christian church for nearly a thousand years, became an Ottoman mosque, maintaining its religious function under a new faith.

Likewise, the Church of the Holy Apostles and other Byzantine buildings continued to serve new religious and civic purposes, demonstrating how the layers of Athenian history were never erased, only adapted.

Continued Use of Byzantine Infrastructure

Despite changes in political control, Byzantine Athens infrastructure remained largely intact. The fortifications, road networks, and marketplaces built during Byzantine rule continued to serve the city under Ottoman administration, proving the lasting impact of Byzantine Athens on the city’s development.

Conclusion

Byzantine Athens was a city built upon layers of history. Pagan temples became Christian churches, political forums turned into neighborhoods, and ancient libraries transformed into religious sanctuaries. As the city adapted to changing empires, it remained a place of faith, tradition, and continuity, preserving its identity even as its role in the empire evolved.